ALBERT BANDURA : Social Learning Theory
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| Albert Bandura
Albert Bandura Biography (1925- )
Timeline of
Events:
Albert Bandura was born December 4, 1925.
1949 – Graduated from the University of British Columbia
with a degree in Psychology.
1952 – Received his Ph.D. in Clinical Psychology from the
University of Iowa.
1953 – Began teaching at Stanford University.
1974 – Served as President of the APA.
1980 – Received the APA’s Award for Distinguished
Scientific Contributions.
2004 - Outstanding Lifetime Contribution to Psychology, American
Psychological Association.
Early Life:
Albert Bandura was born in a small Canadian town located
approximately 50 miles from Edmonton. The last of six children, Bandura's early
education consisted of one small school with only two teachers. According to
Bandura, because of this limited access to educational resources, "The
students had to take charge of their own education" (Stokes, 1986).
He realized that while "the content of most
textbooks is perishable...the tools of self-directedness serve one well over
time" (Stokes, 1986). These early experiences may have contributed to his
later emphasis on the importance of personal agency.
Bandura soon became fascinated by psychology after
enrolling at the University of British Columbia. He had started out as a
biological sciences major, his interest in psychology formed quite by accident.
While working nights and commuting to school with a group of students, he found
himself arriving at school much earlier than his courses started. To pass the
time, he began taking "filler classes" during these early morning
hours, which led to him eventually stumbling upon psychology.
Bandura explained, "One morning, I was wasting time
in the library. Someone had forgotten to return a course catalog and I thumbed
through it attempting to find a filler course to occupy the early time slot. I
noticed a course in psychology that would serve as excellent filler. It sparked
my interest and I found my career."
After graduating in just three years, he went on to
graduate school at the University of Iowa. The school had been home to Clark Hull
and other psychologists including Kenneth Spence and Kurt Lewin. While the
program took an interest in social learning theory, Bandura felt that it was
too focused on behaviorist
explanations.
Bandura earned his M.A. degree in 1951 and his Ph.D. in
1952.
Career:
After earning his Ph.D., he was offered a position at
Stanford University. Bandura accepted the offer (even though it meant resigning
from another position he had already accepted) and has continued to work at
Stanford to this day. It was during his studies on adolescent aggression that
Bandura became increasing interested in vicarious learning, modeling and
imitation.
Theory:
Albert Bandura's social learning theory stressed the
importance of observational learning, imitation and modeling. "Learning
would be exceedingly laborious, not to mention hazardous, if people had to rely
solely on the effects of their own actions to inform them what to do,"
Bandura explained (Bandura, 1977). His theory integrates a continuous interaction
between behaviors, cognitions and the environment.
His most famous experiment was the 1961 Bobo
doll study. In the experiment, he made a film in which a woman was shown
beating up a Bobo doll and shouting aggressive words. The film was then shown
to a group of children. Afterwards, the children were allowed to play in a room
that held a Bobo doll. The children immediately began to beat the doll,
imitating the actions and words of the woman in the film.
The study was significant because it departed from
behaviorism’s insistence that all behavior is directed by reinforcement or
rewards. The children received no encouragement or incentives to beat up the
doll; they were simply imitating the behavior they had observed. Bandura termed
this phenomena observational learning and characterized the elements of
effective observational learning as attention, retention, reciprocation and
motivation.
Is Albert Bandura a Behaviorist?:
While most psychology textbooks place Bandura’s theory
with those of the behaviorists, Bandura himself has noted that he
"...never really fit the behavioral orthodoxy." Even in his earliest
work, Bandura argued that reducing behavior to a stimulus-response cycle was
too simplistic. While his work used behavioral terminology such as
'conditioning' and 'reinforcement,' Bandura explained, "...I
conceptualized these phenomena as operating through cognitive processes."
"Authors of psychological texts continue to
mischaracterize my approach as rooted in behaviorism," Bandura has
explained, describing his own perspective as 'social cognitivism.'
Contributions to Psychology:
Bandura’s work is considered part of the cognitive
revolution in psychology that began in the late 1960s. His theories have had
tremendous impact on personality
psychology, cognitive
psychology, education and psychotherapy.
"Learning would be exceedingly laborious, not to
mention hazardous, if people had to rely solely on the effects of their own
actions to inform them what to do. Fortunately, most human behavior is learned
observationally through modeling: from observing others one forms an idea of
how new behaviors are performed, and on later occasions this coded information
serves as a guide for action."
-Albert Bandura, Social Learning Theory, 1977
What is Social
Learning Theory?
The social learning theory proposed by Albert
Bandura has become perhaps the most influential theory of learning and
development. While rooted in many of the basic concepts of traditional learning
theory, Bandura believed that direct reinforcement could not account for all
types of learning.
His theory added a social element, arguing that people
can learn new information and behaviors by watching other people. Known as
observational learning (or modeling), this type of learning can be used to
explain a wide variety of behaviors.
Basic Social Learning Concepts
There are three core concepts at the heart of social
learning theory. First is the idea that people can learn through observation.
Next is the idea that internal mental states are an essential part of this
process. Finally, this theory recognizes that just because something has been
learned, it does not mean that it will result in a change in behavior.
Let's explore each of these concepts in greater depth.
1. People can
learn through observation.
Observational Learning
In his famous Bobo
doll experiment, Bandura demonstrated that children learn and imitate behaviors
they have observed in other people. The children in Bandura’s studies observed
an adult acting violently toward a Bobo doll. When the children were later
allowed to play in a room with the Bobo doll, they began to imitate the
aggressive actions they had previously observed.
Bandura identified three basic models of observational
learning:
A live model, which involves an actual individual
demonstrating or acting out a behavior.
A verbal instructional model, which involves descriptions
and explanations of a behavior.
A symbolic model, which involves real or fictional
characters displaying behaviors in books, films, television programs, or online
media.
2. Mental states
are important to learning.
Intrinsic Reinforcement
Bandura noted that external, environmental reinforcement
was not the only factor to influence learning and behavior. He described
intrinsic reinforcement as a form of internal reward, such as pride,
satisfaction, and a sense of accomplishment. This emphasis on internal thoughts
and cognitions helps connect learning theories to cognitive developmental
theories. While many textbooks place social learning theory with behavioral
theories, Bandura himself describes his approach as a 'social cognitive
theory.'
3. Learning does
not necessarily lead to a change in behavior.
While behaviorists believed that learning led to a
permanent change in behavior, observational learning demonstrates that people
can learn new information without demonstrating new behaviors.
The Modeling Process
Not all observed behaviors are effectively learned.
Factors involving both the model and the learner can play a role in whether
social learning is successful. Certain requirements and steps must also be
followed. The following steps are involved in the observational learning and
modeling process:
Attention:
In order to learn, you need to be paying attention. Anything that detracts your attention is going to have a negative effect on observational learning. If the model interesting or there is a novel aspect to the situation, you are far more likely to dedicate your full attention to learning.
Retention:
The ability to store information is also an important part of the learning process. Retention can be affected by a number of factors, but the ability to pull up information later and act on it is vital to observational learning.
Reproduction:
Once you have paid attention to the model and retained the information, it is time to actually perform the behavior you observed. Further practice of the learned behavior leads to improvement and skill advancement.
Motivation:
Finally, in order for observational learning to be successful, you have to be motivated to imitate the behavior that has been modeled. Reinforcement and punishment play an important role in motivation. While experiencing these motivators can be highly effective, so can observing other experience some type of reinforcement or punishment. For example, if you see another student rewarded with extra credit for being to class on time, you might start to show up a few minutes early each day.
Final Thoughts
In addition to influencing other psychologists, Bandura's
social learning theory has had important implication in the field of eduction.
Today, both teachers and parents recognize the importance of modeling
appropriate behaviors. Other classroom strategies such as encouraging children
and building self-efficacy
are also rooted in social learning theory.
Bobo Doll Experiment
Bandura's Famous
Experiment on Aggression
Does the violence that children observe on television,
movies, and video games lead them to behavior aggressively? This is a hot
question today, but it was also of great interest 50 years ago when a
psychologist led an experiment to determine how kids learn aggression through
observation.
Aggression lies at the root of many social ills ranging
from interpersonal violence to war. It is little wonder then that the subject
is one of the most studied topics within psychology. Social
psychology is the subfield devoted to the study of human interaction and
group behavior, and it is the scientists working in this field who have
provided much of the research on human aggression.
In a famous and influential experiment known as the Bobo
doll experiment, Albert
Bandura and his colleagues were able to demonstrate one of the ways in
which children learn aggression. Bandura's social
learning theory proposes that learning occurs through observation and
interaction with other people.
Bandura's
Predictions
The experiment involved exposing children to two
different adult models; an aggressive model and a non-aggressive one. After
witnessing the adult's behavior, the children would then be placed in a room
without the model and were observed to see if they would imitate the behavior
they had witnessed earlier.
Bandura made several predictions about what would occur:
He predicted that children who observed an adult acting
aggressively would be likely to act aggressively even when the adult model was
not present.
The children who observed the non-aggressive adult model
would be less aggressive than the children who observed the aggressive model;
the non-aggressive exposure group would also be less aggressive than the
control group.
Children would be more likely to imitate models of the
same-sex rather than opposite-sex models.
Boys would behave more aggressively than girls.
Method
The participants for the experiment were 36 boys and 36
girls enrolled at the Stanford University Nursery School. The children ranged
in age between 3 and almost 6 years, and the average participant age was 4
years 4 months.
There were a total of eight experimental groups. Out of
these participants, 24 were assigned to a control group
that received no treatment. The rest of the children were then divided into two
groups of 24 participants each. One of the experimental groups was then exposed
to aggressive models, while the other 24 children were exposed to
non-aggressive models.
Finally, these groups were divided again into groups of
boys and girls. Each of these groups was then divided so that half of the
participants were exposed to a same-sex adult model and the other half was
exposed to an opposite-sex adult model.
Before conducting the experiment, Bandura also assessed
the children's existing levels of aggression. Groups were then matched equally
so that they had an average level of aggression.
Procedure
Each child was tested individually to ensure that
behavior would not be influenced by others children. The child was first
brought into a playroom where there were a number of different activities to
engage in. The experimenter then invited an adult model into the playroom who
was encouraged to sit at a table and join in the activities. Over a ten minute
period, the adults then began to play with a set of tinker toys. In the
non-aggressive condition, the adult model simply played with the toy and
ignored the Bobo doll for the entire period. In the aggressive model condition,
however, the adult model would violently attack the Bobo doll.
"The model laid the Bobo on its side, sat on it, and
punched it repeatedly in the nose. The model then raised the Bobo doll, picked
up the mallet, and struck the doll in the head. Following the mallet
aggression, the model tossed the doll up in the air aggressively, and kicked it
about the room. This sequence of physically aggressive acts was repeated three
times, interspersed with verbally aggressive responses."
In addition to the physical aggression, the adult model
also used verbally aggressive phrases such as "Kick him" and
"Pow." The model also added two non-aggressive phrases: "He sure
is a tough fella" and "He keeps coming back for more."
After the ten-minute exposure to the adult model, the child
was then taken to another room that contained a number of appealing toys
including a doll set, fire engine, and toy airplane. However, children were
told that they were not allowed to play with any of these tempting toys. The
purpose of this was to build up frustration levels among the children.
Finally, each child was taken to the last experimental
room. This room contained a number of "aggressive" toys including a
mallet, a tether ball with a face painted on it, dart guns, and, of course, a
Bobo doll. The room also included several "non-aggressive" toys
including crayons, paper, dolls, plastic animals, and trucks. The children were
then allowed to play in this room for a period of 20 minutes while raters
observed each child's behavior from behind a one-way mirror and judged each
child levels of aggression.
Results
The results of the experiment supported three of the four
original predictions.
Children exposed to the violet model tended to imitate
the exact behavior they had observed when the adult was no longer present.
Bandura and his colleagues had also predicted that
children in the non-aggressive group would behave less aggressively than those
in the control group. The results indicated that while children of both genders
in the non-aggressive group did exhibit less aggression than the control group,
boys who had observed an opposite-sex model behavior non-aggressively were more
likely than those in the control group to engage in violence.
There were important gender differences when it came to whether
a same-sex or opposite-sex model was observed. Boy who observed an adult male
behaving violently were more influenced than those who had observed a female
model behavior aggressively. Interestingly, the experimenters found in the
same-sex aggressive groups, boys were more likely to imitate physical acts of
violence while girls were more likely to imitate verbal aggression.
The researchers were also correct in their prediction
that boys would behave more aggressively than girls. Boys engaged in more than
twice as many acts of aggression than the girls.
Discussion
The results of the Bobo doll experiment supported
Bandura's social learning theory. Bandura and his colleagues believed that the
experiment demonstrates how specific behaviors can be learned through
observation and imitation. The authors also suggested that "social
imitation may hasten or short-cut the acquisition of new behaviors without the
necessity of reinforcing successive approximations as suggested by Skinner."
According to Bandura, the adult's violent behavior toward
the doll led children to believe that such actions were acceptable. He also
suggested that as a result, children may be more inclined to respond to
frustration with aggression in the future. In a follow-up study conducted in
1965, Bandura found that while children were more likely to imitate aggressive
behavior if the adult model was rewarded for his or her actions, they were far
less likely to imitate if they saw the adult model being punished or
reprimanded for their hostile behavior.
Criticisms
As with any experiment, the Bobo doll study is not
without criticisms.
Because the experiment took place in a lab setting, some
critics suggest that results observed in this type of location may not be
indicative of what takes place in the real world.
The study might suffer from selection bias. All
participants were drawn from a narrow pool of students who share the same
racial and socioeconomic background. This makes it difficult to generalize the
results to a larger, more diverse population.
Since data was collected immediately, it is also
difficult to know what the long-term impact might have been.
Acting violently toward a doll is a lot different that
displaying aggression or violence against another human being in a real world
setting.
It has also been suggested that children were not
actually motivated to display aggression when they hit the Bobo doll; instead,
they may have simply been trying to please the adults. Some critics argue that
the study itself is unethical. By manipulating the children into behaving
aggressively, they argue, the experimenters were essentially teaching the
children to be aggressive.
Final Thoughts
Bandura's experiment remains one of the most well-known
studies in psychology. Today, social psychologists continue to study the impact
of observed violence on children's behavior. In the half-century since the Bobo
doll experiment, there have been hundreds of studies on how observing violence
impacts children's behavior. Today, researchers continue to ponder the question
of whether the violence children witness on television in the movies translates
to aggressive or violent behavior in the real-world.
Bobo Doll Experiment
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ReplyDeletewhat is the principles of bandoura theory?
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